India’s early modern history is shaped by two major developments: the consolidation and cultural flowering of the Mughal Empire, and the gradual rise of European trading companies, particularly the British, which eventually transformed into a political takeover. Together, these forces reshaped the subcontinent between the 16th and early 19th centuries.

NDA & CDS 1 2026 Exam History – Modern History – Class 1

The Mughal Empire: Foundation, Expansion, and Administration

1. Establishment and Rise (1526–1605)

The Mughal Empire began with Babur’s victory at the First Battle of Panipat (1526), which ended the Delhi Sultanate’s rule. His grandson Akbar (1556–1605) laid the real foundation of a unified empire. Akbar’s policies of religious tolerance, centralised administration, and mansabdari reforms created a strong, stable state.

2. Cultural and Economic Prosperity

Under Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and early Aurangzeb, the empire reached its peak:

• Flourishing of art, architecture, and literature
• Construction of iconic monuments like the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Fatehpur Sikri
• A strong revenue system based on Todar Mal’s zabt system
• Expansion of trade with Central Asia, Persia, and rising European traders on the coasts

The Mughal court became a global centre of wealth, attracting merchants and diplomats from across the world.

3. Decline of the Empire (1707–1857)

After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the empire fragmented due to:

• Succession disputes
• Rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs)
• Weak emperors and court factions
• Growing European influence and military superiority

Though Mughal emperors continued to rule symbolically from Delhi, their power steadily diminished, paving the way for European intervention.

The Era of European Entry in India (1600–1810)

From the early 17th century, India saw intense competition among European powers—Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French—who began as traders but eventually shaped India’s political future.

1. The British in India (1600–1810)

Arrival and Commercial Expansion (1600–1700)

• The English East India Company was formed in 1600.
• Their first factory came up in Surat (1613) followed by Madras (1639), Bombay (1661), and Calcutta (1690).
• They focused on the profitable trade of textiles, spices, saltpetre, and indigo.

British Political Rise (1700–1810)

The 18th century marks the transformation of the Company from a trading organisation to a territorial power.

Key Events:

• 1707–1757: Mughal decline created a power vacuum.
• Battle of Plassey (1757): British victory over Siraj-ud-Daulah gave them control over Bengal’s revenue.
• Battle of Buxar (1764): Secured Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• 1793: Permanent Settlement in Bengal.
• 1799: Defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
• 1803–1810: Establishment of dominance in Delhi, decisive wars with Marathas.

By 1810, the British had become the most powerful force in India, controlling vast territories either directly or through subsidiary alliances.

2. Portuguese Influence (1498–1600 and Later)

The Portuguese were the earliest Europeans to arrive. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, they controlled:

• Goa
• Diu
• Daman
• Parts of the western coastline

Although their political influence declined after the rise of the Dutch and English, Goa remained under Portuguese control till 1961.

3. Dutch in India (1602–1750)

The Dutch East India Company established factories in:

• Surat
• Cochin
• Pulicat
• Nagapattinam

They focused mainly on the spice trade in Southeast Asia and gradually withdrew from India after losing to rising English power.

4. French in India (1664–1761)

The French East India Company established important centres in:

• Pondicherry
• Mahe
• Karaikal
• Chandernagore

Under Dupleix, the French posed the strongest challenge to British expansion.
However, the Carnatic Wars (1746–1763) ended in British victory, significantly weakening French influence though their settlements remained under French control until 1954.

India Between 1600 and 1810: A Period of Transition

This period witnessed significant economic, political, and social changes:

1. Transformation of Power Structures

• The Mughal Empire weakened, replaced by regional kingdoms.
• European companies used diplomacy, alliances, and superior military technology to expand influence.

2. Economic Changes

• Indian textiles dominated global markets.
• European trading companies increasingly controlled exports.
• Land revenue systems were restructured under British rule.

3. Cultural Interactions

• A blend of Indian and European art, architecture, and intellectual exchange emerged.
• New educational ideas and printing culture began entering India.

4. Foundation of Colonial Rule

By 1810, the British had:

• Strong military control
• Vast revenue resources
• Strategic ports and trade networks

This laid the groundwork for their complete political dominance in the 19th century.

Conclusion

The story of the Mughal Empire and the rise of European powers, especially the British, reflects a dramatic transformation in Indian history. From the grandeur of Mughal rule to the growing influence of foreign trading companies, India between 1600 and 1810 witnessed shifting alliances, economic transitions, and the early stages of colonial rule. These developments set the stage for India’s political restructuring in the 19th century and profoundly shaped its modern identity.